Killing from Both Ends: A Re-Definition of Road Traffic Mortality

##plugins.themes.academic_pro.article.sidebar##

Published Feb 1, 2023
https://doi.org/10.37285/ajmt.3.1.1
Download
Requires Subscription or Fee Pdf (USD 20)
Statistic

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.
Vol. 3 No. 1 (2023): January-March 2023

##plugins.themes.academic_pro.article.main##

Ritu Vasu Primlani
Urban Management and Governance, Xavier University, Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6947-3223
Dr. Hansa Jeswani
Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Mumbai University, Mumbai
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1209-1862

Abstract

The metric of Road Traffic Mortality (RTM) is important: it is indicative of road safety, and is used to inform policy. Hitherto RTM is considered to be caused through collision or impact, or the “front” end of the vehicle. Mortality and morbidity arising from the “back” end of the vehicle, i.e., through tailpipe emissions, tends not to be included in the definition, or in the metric of RTM. Additionally, despite its widespread usage globally, RTM seems to lack a universal or standard definition. RTM is currently used interchangeably with about ten other acronyms. This lack of standard definition along with the exclusion of TRAP may underestimate the true mortality and morbidity arising from vehicular traffic. Further, the exclusion of mortality due to TRAP from RTM may relieve public policy from addressing this public health and climate change issue. A standardized definition of RTM is proposed in this paper. We are recommending the inclusion of exposure-related mortality and morbidity into RTM. To that end, the bifurcation of the definition of RTM into RTMi (Impact-related RTM) and RTMe (exposure-related RTM, such as through air or noise pollution) is proposed. This inclusion of RTMe into the metric of RTM might provide a legislative domicile for exposure-related mortality, advise policy change, and serve the dual purpose of strengthening climate policy efforts while bolstering public health.


Keywords: Road traffic mortality, road transport policy, traffic-related air pollution


 

##plugins.themes.academic_pro.article.details##

Author Biographies

Ritu Vasu Primlani, Urban Management and Governance, Xavier University, Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa

 

 

 

Dr. Hansa Jeswani , Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Mumbai University, Mumbai

 

 

 

 

How to Cite
Ritu Vasu Primlani, & Dr. Hansa Jeswani. (2023). Killing from Both Ends: A Re-Definition of Road Traffic Mortality. ARAI Journal of Mobility Technology, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.37285/ajmt.3.1.1
Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC

References

  1. Wang, L., Ning, P., Yin, P., Cheng, P., Schwebel, D. C., Liu, J., ... & Hu, G. (2019). Road traffic mortality in China: analysis of national surveillance data from 2006 to 2016. The Lancet Public Health, 4(5), e245-e255.
  2. Peden, M., & Toroyan, T. (2004). Road traffic injuries in South Asia: National and organisational policy responses. Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons–Pakistan, 14, 722–725.
  3. Ngo, A., Rao, C., Phuong Hoa, N., Hoy, D., Hill, P., & Ngo, A. (2012). Road traffic related mortality in Vietnam: Evidence for policy from a national sample mortality surveillance system. BMC Public Health, 12(1)., 561–561. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-561.
  4. Hsiao, M., Malhotra, A., Thakur, J., Sheth, J., Nathens, A., Dhingra, N., & Jha, P. (2013). Road traffic injury mortality and its mechanisms in India: nationally representative mortality survey of 1.1 million homes. BMJ Open, 3(8), e002621. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002621
  5. Samuel, J., Sankhulani, E., Qureshi, J., Baloyi, P., Thupi, C., Lee, C., … Colizza, V. (2012). Under-Reporting of Road Traffic Mortality in Developing Countries: Application of a Capture-Recapture Statistical Model to Refine Mortality Estimates (Road Traffic Mortality in Developing Countries). PLoS ONE, 7(2)., e31091. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031091
  6. Hu, G., Baker, T., & Baker, S. (2011). Comparing road traffic mortality rates from police-reported data and death registration data in China. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 89(1)., 41–45. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.10.080317
  7. WHO (2018). Global Status Report on Road Safety.
  8. Rossi, I. A., Vienneau, D., Ragettli, M. S., Flückiger, B., & Röösli, M. (2020). Estimating the health benefits associated with a speed limit reduction to thirty kilometres per hour: A health impact assessment of noise and road traffic crashes for the Swiss city of Lausanne. Environment international, 145, 106126.
  9. Huang, H., Yin, Q., Schwebel, D., Li, L., & Hu, G. (2016). Examining Road Traffic Mortality Status in China: A Simulation Study.(Report). PLoS ONE, 11(4), e0153251. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone. 0153251
  10. Fallahzadeh, H., Dehgani, A., & Shuang-Ming, S. (2011). Epidemiology of road traffic mortality and injuries in Yazd, Iran during 2003-2008. Chinese Journal of Traumatology, 14(5)., 293–296. https://doi.org/10.3760/cma.j.issn.1008-1275.2011.05.007
  11. Chandran, A., Kahn, G., Sousa, T., Pechansky, F., Bishai, D., &Hyder, A. (2013). Impact of Road Traffic Deaths on Expected Years of Life Lost and Reduction in Life Expectancy in Brazil. Demography, 50(1)., 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0135-7.
  12. Brazinova, A., & Majdan, M. (2016). Road traffic mortality in the Slovak Republic in 1996-2014. Traffic Injury Prevention, 17(7)., 692–698. https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2016.1143095
  13. Yannis, G., Papadimitriou, E., & Folla, K. (2014). Effect of GDP changes on road traffic fatalities. Safety Science, 63(C)., 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2013.10.017
  14. Lapostolle, A., Gadegbeku, B., Ndiaye, A., et al. (2009). The burden of road traffic accidents in a French Department: The description of the injuries and recent changes. BMC Public Health, 9, 386
  15. Jones, A., Haynes, R., Kennedy, V., Harvey, I., Jewell, T., & Lea, D. (2008). Geographical variations in mortality and morbidity from road traffic accidents in England and Wales. Health and Place, 14(3)., 519–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2007.10.001
  16. Spoerri, A., Egger, M., & von Elm, E. (2011). Mortality from road traffic accidents in Switzerland: longitudinal and spatial analyses. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 43(1), 40-48.
  17. El-Sadig, M., Nelson Norman, J., Lloyd, O., Romilly, P., &Bener, A. (2002). Road traffic accidents in the United Arab Emirates: trends of morbidity and mortality during 1977–1998. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 34(4)., 465–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-4575(01).00044-6.
  18. Montazeri, A. (2004). Road-traffic-related mortality in Iran: a descriptive study. Public health, 118(2), 110-113.
  19. Söderlund, N., & Zwi, A. B. (1995). Traffic-related mortality in industrialized and less developed countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 73(2), 175.
  20. Ngo, A., Rao, C., Phuong Hoa, N., Hoy, D., Hill, P., & Ngo, A. (2012). Road traffic related mortality in Vietnam: Evidence for policy from a national sample mortality surveillance system. BMC Public Health, 12(1)., 561–561. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-561.
  21. Wong, E., Leong, M., Anantharaman, V., Raman, L., Wee, K., Chao, T., & Wong, E. (2002). Road traffic accident mortality in Singapore. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 22(2)., 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0736-4679(01).00455-3
  22. Ngo, A., Rao, C., Phuong Hoa, N., Hoy, D., Hill, P., & Ngo, A. (2012). Road traffic related mortality in Vietnam: Evidence for policy from a national sample mortality surveillance system. BMC Public Health, 12(1)., 561–561. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-561.
  23. Hsiao, M., Malhotra, A., Thakur, J., Sheth, J., Nathens, A., Dhingra, N., & Jha, P. (2013). Road traffic injury mortality
  24. and its mechanisms in India: nationally representative mortality survey of 1.1 million homes. BMJ Open, 3(8), e002621. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002621
  25. Maitra, B., Prasad, P., & Bera, R. (2018). Necessary Interventions in Driving Licensing Procedure for Enhancing Road Safety in India (No. 18-05058).
  26. Frieden, T. R. (2013). Government’s role in protecting health and safety. N Engl J Med, 368(20), 1857-1859.
  27. McGinnis, J. M. (1990). Setting objectives for public health in the 1990s: experience and prospects. Annual review of public health, 11(1), 231-249.
  28. Ågren, G. (2003). SWEDEN’S NEW PUBLIC HEALTH POLICY NATIONAL PUBLIC HEALTH OBJECTIVES FOR SWEDEN.
  29. Oregon Driver and Motor Vehicle Services (2021). Driver Manual, Oregon Department of Transportation, Form 735-37 (5-21), Accessed online Nov 25, 2021 at: https://www.oregon.gov/odot/forms/dmv/37.pdf
  30. Kentucky State Police (2017). Kentucky Driver Manual, Accessed online Nov 25, 2021 at: https://kentuckystatepolice.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Kentucky-Driver-Manual-12-1-2017.pdf
  31. New Hampshire Department of Safety Division of Motor Vehicles (2020). State of New Hampshire Driver Manual, Accessed online Nov 25, 2021 at: https://www.nh.gov/safety/divisions/dmv/forms/documents/nhdm.pdf
  32. Minnesota Department of Public Safety Driver and Vehicle Services Division (2021). Minnesota Driver’s Manual Accessed online Nov 25, 2021 at: https://dps.mn.gov/divisions/dvs/formsdocuments/Documents/Minnesota_Drivers_Manual.pdf
  33. Alabama Law Enforcement Agency DMV (2021). Alabama Driver Manual, Accessed online Nov 25, 2021 at: https://www.alea.gov/sites/default/files/inline-files/Driver%27s%20Manual%20Class%20D%20Driver%20Manual%20ALEA%20Dec%202020.pdf
  34. Simeonova, E., Currie, J., Nilsson, P., & Walker, R. (2018). Congestion Pricing, Air Pollution and Children’s Health. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/2059146361/
  35. Sdoukopoulos, A., Pitsiava-Latinopoulou, M., Basbas, S., Papaioannou, P. (2019). "Measuring progress towards transport sustainability through indicators: Analysis and metrics of the main indicator initiatives." Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment.
  36. Polloni, S. (2019). Traffic calming and neighborhoodlivability: Evidence from housing prices in Portland. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 74, 18–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2018.11.004
  37. Sims R., R. Schaeffer, F. Creutzig, X. Cruz-Núñez, M. D’Agosto, D. Dimitriu, M.J. Figueroa Meza, L. Fulton, S. Kobayashi, O. Lah, A. McKinnon, P. Newman, M. Ouyang, J.J. Schauer, D. Sperling, and G. Tiwari, 2014: Transport. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
  38. Khamsi, R. (2005). Air pollution influences crop disease. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/news050404-1
  39. Emberson, L., Ashmore, M., & Murray, F. (2003). Air pollution impacts on crops and forests a global assessment / editors, Lisa Emberson, Mike Ashmore, Frank Murray. [electronic resource] : London: Imperial College Press.
  40. Debaje, S., Kakade, A., & Johnson Jeyakumar, S. (2010). Air pollution effect of O 3 on crop yield in rural India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 183(1-3)., 773– 779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.07.093
  41. Avnery, S., Mauzerall, D. L., Liu, J., & Horowitz, L. W. (2011). Global crop yield reductions due to surface ozone exposure: 2. Year 2030 potential crop production losses and economic damage under two scenarios of O3 pollution. Atmospheric Environment, 45(13), 2297-2309.
  42. Tai, A., & Val Martin, M. (2017). Impacts of ozone air pollution and temperature extremes on crop yields: Spatial variability, adaptation and implications for future food security. Atmospheric Environment, 169, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.09.002
  43. Schiferi, L., & Heald, C. (2018). Particulate matter air pollution may offset ozone damage to global crop production. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 18(8)., 5953–5966. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-5953-2018
  44. Ozga, I., Bonazza, A., Bernardi, E., Tittarelli, F., Favoni, O., Ghedini, N., … Sabbioni, C. (2011). Diagnosis of surface damage induced by air pollution on 20thcentury concrete buildings. Atmospheric Environment, 45(28)., 4986–4995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.072
  45. Brimblecombe, P. (2003). The effects of air pollution on the built environment editor, Peter Brimblecombe. [electronic resource] /. London: Imperial College Press.
  46. Brauer, M., Reynolds, C., Hystad, P., & Brauer, M. (2013). Traffic-related air pollution and health in Canada. CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association Journal = Journal de l’AssociationMedicale Canadienne, 185(18)., 1557–1558. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.121568
  47. Spira-Cohen, A., Chen, L., Kendall, M., Lall, R., & Thurston, G. (2011). Personal exposures to traffic-related air pollution and acute respiratory health among Bronx schoolchildren with asthma. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(4)., 559– 565.https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002653
  48. Sanchez, K. A., Foster, M., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., May, A. D., Ramani, T., Zietsman, J., & Khreis, H. (2020). Urban policy interventions to reduce traffic emissions and traffic-related air pollution: Protocol for a systematic evidence map. Environment International, 142, 105826.
  49. Schembari, A., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., Salvador, J., De Nazelle, A., Cirach, M., Dadvand, P., … Vrijheid, M. (2014). Traffic-related air pollution and congenital anomalies in Barcelona. 122(3)., 317–323. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1306802
  50. McConnell, R., Islam, T., Shankardass, K., Jerrett, M., Lurmann, F., Gilliland, F.,… Berhane, K. (2010). Childhood incident asthma and traffic-related air pollution at home and school. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118(7), 1021–1026. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0901232
  51. Nijland, M., Cassee, F., Brunekreef, B., & University Utrecht (2013). Traffic-related air pollution -the health effects scrutinized.
  52. Lockhart, D., Vaganay, M., Macintyre, S., Joseph, P., & Lockhart, D. (2015). A Meta-analysis Of The Impact Of Trafficrelated Air Pollution On Health And The Factors Affecting Exposure. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 198, 193–204. https://doi.org/10.2495/AIR150161
  53. Dijkema, M., Brunekreef, B., Gehring, U., Strien, R., & University Utrecht. (2011). Traffic related air pollution : spatial variation, health effects and mitigation measures.
  54. Azizi, M. (2011). Impact of Traffic-Related Air Pollution on Public Health: A Real Challenge. Archives of Iranian Medicine, 14(2)., 139–143. https://doi.org/011142/AIM.0013
  55. OECD (2014). The Cost of Air Pollution: Health Impacts of Road Transport, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264210448-en.
  56. Hertwich, E. G., & Wood, R. (2018). The growing importance of scope 3 greenhouse gas emissions from industry. Environmental Research Letters, 13(10), 104013.
  57. Lamb, W. F., Wiedmann, T., Pongratz, J., Andrew, R., Crippa, M., Olivier, J. G., ... & Minx, J. C. (2021). A review of trends and drivers of greenhouse gas emissions by sector from 1990 to 2018. Environmental research letters.
  58. Sims R., R. Schaeffer, F. Creutzig, X. Cruz-Núñez, M. D’Agosto, D. Dimitriu, M.J. Figueroa Meza, L. Fulton, S. Kobayashi, O. Lah, A. McKinnon, P. Newman, M. Ouyang, J.J. Schauer, D. Sperling, and G. Tiwari, 2014: Transport. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
  59. IEA (2021). Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy: Overview, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/greenhousegas-emissions-from-energy-overview
  60. US EPA (2022). Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, accessed online April 5, 2022 at: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-andsinks
  61. Ribeiro, S. K., Kobayashi, S., Beuthe, M., Gasca, J., Greene, D., Lee, D. S., ... & Zhou, P. J. (2007). Transportation and its infrastructure.
  62. OECD (2014). The Cost of Air Pollution: Health Impacts of Road Transport, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264210448-en.
  63. KOBiZE (2014). Gazycieplarniane. [online]. Available on the Internet: http://www.kobize.pl/en/article/krajowainwentaryzacja-emisji/id/384/gazycieplarniane
  64. Moore, S. and G. Newey (eds.). (2012). Something in the Air: The forgotten crisis of Britain's poor air quality, Policy Exchange, London, http://www.policy.exchange.org.uk/publications/
  65. Anenberg, S. C., Miller, J., Henze, D. K., Minjares, R., & Achakulwisut, P. (2019). The global burden of transportation tailpipe emissions on air pollution-related mortality in 2010 and 2015. Environmental Research Letters, 14(9), 094012.
  66. IEA (2021). Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy: Overview, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/greenhousegas-emissions-from-energy-overview
  67. Nemery, B., Hoet, P., & Nemmar, A. (2001). The Meuse Valley fog of 1930: an air pollution disaster. The Lancet, 357(9257)., 704–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00).04135-0
  68. Bell, M., Davis, D., & Bell, M. (2001). Reassessment of the Lethal London Fog of 1952: Novel Indicators of Acute and Chronic Consequences of Acute Exposure to Air Pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109, 389–394. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/19927121/
  69. Stone, R., & Stone, R. (2002). Air Pollution: Counting the Cost of London’s Killer Smog. Science (Washington)., 298(5601)., 2106–2107. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.298.5601.2106b
  70. Anenberg, S. C., Miller, J., Henze, D. K., Minjares, R., & Achakulwisut, P. (2019). The global burden of transportation tailpipe emissions on air pollution-related mortality in 2010 and 2015. Environmental Research Letters, 14(9), 094012.
  71. OECD (2014). The Cost of Air Pollution: Health Impacts of Road Transport, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264210448-en.
  72. Kunzli, N., Kaiser, R., Medina, S., Studnicka, M., Chanel, O., Filliger, P., … Kunzli, N. (2000). Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: a European assessment. Lancet, 2, 795–801. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/57604969/
  73. Gehring, U., Heinrich, J., Krämer, U., Grote, V., Hochadel, M., Sugiri, D., ... & Wichmann, H. E. (2006). Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and cardiopulmonary mortality in women. Epidemiology, 545-551.
  74. Gehring, U., Heinrich, J., Krämer, U., Grote, V., Hochadel, M., Sugiri, D., ... & Wichmann, H. E. (2006). Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and cardiopulmonary mortality in women. Epidemiology, 545-551.
  75. Hoek, G., Brunekreef, B., Goldbohm, S., Fischer, P., & van Den Brandt, P. (2002). Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study. The Lancet, 360(9341), 1203–1209. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11280-3.
  76. Maynard, D., Coull, B. A., Gryparis, A., & Schwartz, J. (2007). Mortality risk associated with short-term exposure to traffic particles and sulfates. Environmental health perspectives, 115(5), 751-755.
  77. Shah, A. S., Langrish, J. P., Nair, H., McAllister, D. A., Hunter, A. L., Donaldson, K., ... & Mills, N. L. (2013). Global association of air pollution and heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 382(9897), 1039-1048.
  78. Anderson, J. O., Thundiyil, J. G., & Stolbach, A. (2012). Clearing the air: a review of the effects of particulate matter air pollution on human health. Journal of medical toxicology, 8(2), 166-175.
  79. Anderson, H. R., Spix, C., Medina, S., Schouten, J. P., Castellsague, J., Rossi, G., ... & Katsouyanni, K. (1997). Air pollution and daily admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 6 European cities: results from the APHEA project. European respiratory journal, 10(5), 1064-1071.
  80. Andersen, Z. J., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel, M., Loft, S., Sørensen, M., ... & Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and longterm exposure to traffic-related air pollution: a cohort study. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 183(4), 455-461.
  81. Sunyer, J. J. E. R. J. (2001). Urban air pollution and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a review. European Respiratory Journal, 17(5), 1024-1033.
  82. Simeonova, E., Currie, J., Nilsson, P., & Walker, R. (2018). Congestion Pricing, Air Pollution and Children’s Health. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/2059146361/
  83. Tonne, C., Melly, S., Mittleman, M., Coull, B., Goldberg, R., & Schwartz, J. (2007). A case–control analysis of exposure to traffic and acute myocardial infarction. Environmental health perspectives, 115(1), 53-57.
  84. Selander, J., Nilsson, M. E., Bluhm, G., Rosenlund, M., Lindqvist, M., Nise, G., & Pershagen, G. (2009). Long-term exposure to road traffic noise and myocardial infarction. Epidemiology, 272-279.
  85. Gan, W. Q., Koehoorn, M., Davies, H. W., Demers, P. A., Tamburic, L., & Brauer, M. (2011). Long-term exposure to trafficrelated air pollution and the risk of coronary heart disease hospitalization and mortality. Environmental health perspectives, 119(4), 501-507.
  86. WHO (2018). IARC: Outdoor air pollution a leading environmental cause of cancer deaths. Accessed online June 1, 2022 at: https://www.iarc.who.int/wpcontent/uploads/2018/07/pr221_E.pdf
  87. Moore, S. and G. Newey (eds.). (2012). Something in the Air: The forgotten crisis of Britain's poor air quality, Policy Exchange, London, http://www.policyexchange.org.uk/publications/
  88. Peretz, A., Sullivan, J. H., Leotta, D. F., Trenga, C. A., Sands, F. N., Allen, J., ... & Kaufman, J. D. (2008). Diesel exhaust inhalation elicits acute vasoconstriction in vivo. Environmental health perspectives, 116(7), 937-942.
  89. Mills, N. L., Törnqvist, H., Robinson, S. D., Gonzalez, M., Darnley, K., MacNee, W., ... & Newby, D. E. (2005). Diesel exhaust inhalation causes vascular dysfunction and impaired endogenous fibrinolysis. Circulation, 112(25), 3930-3936.
  90. Mills, N. L., Törnqvist, H., Gonzalez, M. C., Vink, E., Robinson, S. D., Söderberg, S., ... & Newby, D. E. (2007). Ischemic and thrombotic effects of dilute dieselexhaust inhalation in men with coronary heart disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(11), 1075-1082.
  91. NIGHTINGALE, J. A., MAGGS, R., Cullinan, P. A. U. L., DONNELLY, L. E., ROGERS, D. F., KINNERSLEY, R., ... & NEWMAN-TAYLOR, A. N. T. H. O. N. Y. (2000). Airway inflammation after controlled exposure to diesel exhaust particulates. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 162(1), 161-166.
  92. Salvi, S., Blomberg, A., Rudell, B., Kelly, F., Sandstrom, T., Holgate, S. T., & Frew, A. (1999). Acute inflammatory responses in the airways and peripheral blood after short-term exposure to diesel exhaust in healthy human volunteers. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 159(3), 702-709.
  93. Tobías, A., Recio, A., Díaz, J., & Linares, C. (2015). Health impact assessment of traffic noise in Madrid (Spain). Environmental research, 137, 136-140.
  94. Bluhm, G. L., Berglind, N., Nordling, E., & Rosenlund, M. (2007). Road traffic noise and hypertension. Occupational and environmental medicine, 64(2), 122-126.
  95. Fyhri, A., & Aasvang, G. M. (2010). Noise, sleep and poor health: Modeling the relationship between road traffic noise and cardiovascular problems. Science of the Total Environment, 408(21), 4935-4942.
  96. Ising, H., Dienel, D., Günther, T., & Markert, B. (1980). Health effects of traffic noise. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 47(2), 179-190.
  97. OECD (2014). The Cost of Air Pollution: Health Impacts of Road Transport, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264210448-en.
  98. CE Delft (2021). Health costs of air pollution in European cities and the linkage with transport. Accessed online June 1, 2022 at: https://cedelft.eu/wpcontent/uploads/sites/2/2021/03/CE_Delft_190272_Health_costs_of_air_pollution_in_European_cities_and_the_linkage_with_transport_Def.pdf
  99. European Commission, Directorate- General for Mobility and Transport, Essen, H., Fiorello, D., El Beyrouty, K., et al., Handbook on the external costs of transport: version 2019 – 1.1, Publications Office, 2020, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2832/51388
  100. Sukhai, A., Jones, A., & Haynes, R. (2009). EPIDEMIOLOGY AND RISK OF ROAD TRAFFIC MORTALITY IN SOUTH AFRICA. South African Geographical Journal, 91(1)., 4–15 https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2009.9725325
  101. Chandran, A., Kahn, G., Sousa, T., Pechansky, F., Bishai, D., &Hyder, A. (2013). Impact of Road Traffic Deaths on Expected Years of Life Lost and Reduction in Life Expectancy in Brazil. Demography, 50(1)., 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0135-7.
  102. Bonneux, L. (2002). How to measure the burden of mortality? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56, 128–131.
  103. Hyder, A. A., Rotllant, G., & Morrow, R. H. (1998). Measuring the burden of disease: Healthy life-years. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 196–202.
  104. Lapostolle, A., Gadegbeku, B., Ndiaye, A., et al. (2009). The burden of road traffic accidents in a French Department: The description of the injuries and recent changes. BMC Public Health, 9, 386
  105. Romeder, J. M., & McWhinnie, J. R. (1977). Potential years of life lost between ages 1 and 70: An indicator of premature mortality for health planning. International Journal of Epidemiology, 6, 143–151.
  106. Lelieveld, J., Pozzer, A., Pöschl, U., Fnais, M., Haines, A., & Münzel, T. (2020). Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective. Cardiovascular research, 116(11), 1910-1917.

Similar Articles

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.